Research prepared by: Malbora Ahmetaj
The guide on the history of 'fake news' and disinformation, created by Julie Posetti and Alice Matthews, shows that the phenomenon of disinformation is not new at all. This data, in addition to cases of disinformation over time, also presents the efforts that various countries and institutions have taken against disinformation. Below you can find a summary of this guide to create an overview of this phenomenon.
Around 44 BC – Smear campaign against Mark Antony
Julius Caesar's adopted son, Octavian, after his father's death began a campaign against Mark Antony (Julius Caesar's loyal general) by presenting him as a threat to Rome, as a soldier who had deserted to enjoy the seductive life with Cleopatra, the ruler of a foreign land. Thanks to this false campaign orchestrated by Octavian, he managed to take office as the first emperor of Rome in 27 BC.
1835 – The ''Big Moon'' Hoax
In August, the New York Sun published six articles about the discovery of life on the Moon, purporting to recount the findings of astronomer Sir John Herschel. The article was an elaborate hoax, which caused great outrage around the world and is still remembered as one of the most sensational media blunders.
1914-1918 – World War I
During World War I, unlike in previous wars, propaganda was used on a global scale to convince the population of the justice of the cause; to solicit the support and active cooperation of neutral countries; and to strengthen the support of the Allies. Propaganda played a crucial role in the recruitment effort, appealing to nationalism and patriotism through slogans such as: “Your country needs you”; “Dad, what did you do in the Great War?”
1939-1945 – World War II
Propaganda was one of the most important tools the Nazis used to shape the beliefs and attitudes of the German public. Through posters, film, radio, and other media, they influenced the German public with messages designed to support and gain acceptance for their vision for the future of Germany.
The United States used posters for propaganda. Almost 200,000 different designs were printed during the war which used a number of themes to encourage support for the war, including production, recruitment, etc.
1947-1991 – The Cold War
During this period, international broadcasting was used to influence people to choose the side of the Soviet Union or the United States of America with their allies after the end of World War II.
1996 – Television program ''The Daily Show'' begins
News satire and self-described 'fake news' television programming began in the US, giving way to the rise of satirical news.
1998 – The Onion (Albanian- Qepa) begins online publication
The US-based satirical news website began publishing online, with many of its stories later mistakenly considered fact. In 2012, it published the story “Kim Jong Un Named The Onion’s Most Attractive Man of 2012.” The Chinese Communist Party’s People’s Daily believed the story and published it, as did the Korea Times.
#NotTheOnion became a hashtag used to tell accurate stories that were worthy of parody.
2003-2011 – Iraq War
The New York Times published a series of articles called “The War on Terror,” including a 2001 account that “was never independently verified” of a camp where “biological weapons were produced.” Reporter Judith Miller’s articles containing misinformation about weapons of mass destruction were said to have had “the greatest consequences for America” and were cited by Bush administration officials as one of the reasons for going to war with Iraq.
2016 – Polls in America
In the days immediately before and after the US election, people shared more ‘fake news’ than real news on Twitter. A New York Times investigation and research by cybersecurity firm FireEye found that Russian operatives created Facebook and Twitter profiles of “fake Americans” to post “anti-Clinton” messages. International media reports uncovered a lucrative farm run by teenagers in the small town of Veles in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. It found that there were over 100 pro-Trump websites pushing fabricated news, registered in Veles, with one operator earning $16,000 in the final three months of the campaign.
2016 – Brexit
A large-scale analysis of social media during Brexit showed that not only were there twice as many Brexit supporters on Instagram, but they were also five times more active. Similar patterns emerged on Twitter where foreign accounts were reported to have sent hundreds of thousands of pro-Leave tweets on voting day.
2016 – Facebook announces it will flag 'fake news'
After Facebook was accused of facilitating the spread of misinformation, its creator Mark Zuckerberg dismissed the idea that “fake news” shared on the site influenced the outcome of the US election. The company later announced that it would partner with fact-checkers to combat misinformation, as well as make it easier to report hoaxes and controversial stories to Facebook staff. “Flag” is the term that many people use instead of “report,” meaning that you are alerting Facebook staff to content that is inappropriate and requires immediate attention.
2016 – US President-elect Donald Trump popularizes the term "fake news"
The US president accuses his journalist critics (starting with CNN) of spreading fake news. The term has since spread globally, with other world leaders using the phrase against journalists and news organizations.
2018 – European Union Report on ''fake news''
At the end of 2017, the European Union established a high-level expert group on ‘fake news’ and online disinformation. The report recommended more transparency of online news; increased media and information literacy to counter disinformation; tools to empower users and journalists to tackle disinformation and foster positive engagement with rapidly evolving information technologies; and steps to protect the diversity and sustainability of the European news media ecosystem.
2018 – Developments in the effort to regulate misinformation
– In January, Germany’s 2017 Network Enforcement Act came into effect, requiring social media platforms to remove and block “fake news,” potentially hateful content, and other illegal content prohibited by the Criminal Code within 24 hours of notification with violations resulting in fines of up to 50 million euros.
– In May, Kenya signed a law that states that if a person intentionally publishes false or misleading or fictitious data or misinforms with the intention that the data be considered authentic, they could face a fine of up to nearly $50,000 or two years in prison.
– India and Malaysia passed new laws punishing disinformation which were later repealed.
-The Philippines and the Brazilian Congress are considering bills that would punish the publication or distribution of any disinformation.
2018 – Cambridge Analytica scandal
In March 2018, a whistleblower revealed to The Observer, the New York Times and Channel 4 News that a large pool of personal data had been pulled from millions of Facebook users for use by Cambridge University's Academy of Psychology and a network of businesses operating under its umbrella.
The company used the data to target specific groups of voters in the run-up to the 2016 US Presidential Election. According to undercover reporting by Channel 4, company executives boasted about using their data to target audiences with propaganda and disinformation. The Guide reporters caught Cambridge Analytica executives boasting that the company and its partners had worked on more than 200 international elections, including Argentina, Nigeria and others.
Cambridge Analytica journalist Christopher Wylie also claimed that the company “rigged” the 2017 Brexit vote. The company was shut down after the disclosures continued.
You can read the full guide here: https://www.icfj.org/news/short-guide-history-fake-news-and-disinformation-new-icfj-learning-module